Category: Shinrin-Yoku Journal (ISSN: 2957-2118)

Abstract

This article examines spending time in the forest as a multidimensional form of human–nature engagement that ranges from incidental exposure to sustained and meaningful practice. While a growing body of research indicates that even passive contact with natural environments can support physiological regulation, emotional balance, and cognitive restoration, not all forest experiences develop into enduring practices. The article therefore distinguishes between isolated forest encounters and forest engagement as an ongoing practice, arguing that the latter is characterized not only by repetition, but also by intentionality, continuity, personal meaning, and integration into everyday life.

Particular attention is given to four modalities of forest engagement: time in the forest as a free and accessible resource, guided forest therapy as a mindfulness practice, guided forest therapy as a pathway to nature connection, and time in the forest as a nature-based intervention. Rather than treating these modalities as fixed or mutually exclusive categories, the article conceptualizes them as dynamic modes of engagement that may remain occasional or evolve into sustained practices depending on a range of interacting variables. These include frequency, regularity, perceived benefit, accessibility, emotional meaning, agency, guidance, reflective integration, place attachment, and compatibility with daily life.

By introducing these variables, the article offers a framework for understanding how forest engagement moves from momentary experience to repeated, embodied, and personally significant practice. It argues that the therapeutic and transformative potential of time in the forest depends not only on exposure itself, but on the quality, depth, and continuity of the relationship formed with the natural environment. In this sense, forest engagement is understood not merely as an activity, but as a potential practice of restoration, self-regulation, nature connectedness, and long-term well-being.

Abstract

Phytoncides and forest volatile organic compounds (VOCs) have gained increasing attention in discussions of forest bathing, forest therapy, and nature-based health promotion. Yet the term phytoncides is often used imprecisely, obscuring both its historical origins and its broader ecological and chemical significance. This article examines phytoncides and forest VOCs from an interdisciplinary perspective, integrating their conceptual development, chemical diversity, ecological functions, environmental variability, and possible relevance to human health. It begins by revisiting the origins of the phytoncide concept in plant antimicrobial defense and situates it within the wider framework of biogenic volatile organic compounds emitted by forest ecosystems. The article then outlines the major chemical families associated with phytoncidal activity, including terpenes, terpenoids, phenylpropanoids, green leaf volatiles, sulfur-containing compounds, and less volatile resinous or phenolic defenders, emphasizing how molecular structure shapes volatility, reactivity, and biological action.

The discussion further considers forest VOCs as dynamic components of therapeutic environments rather than static chemical features. In this context, recent work on the evaluation of forest therapy environments is examined alongside evidence for seasonal and geographical variation in phytoncide and VOC concentrations across different forest types and climatic regions. These findings suggest that the atmospheric qualities of forest environments are temporally variable and influenced by species composition, canopy structure, temperature, radiation, humidity, and local microclimate, with important implications for the planning of guided Shinrin Yoku and forest therapy sessions.

Finally, the article reviews current evidence on the relationship between forest VOC exposure and human health, including pharmacokinetic observations, possible effects on inflammation, immune activity, stress physiology, mood, and nervous-system regulation. While several forest VOCs, particularly monoterpenes such as limonene and α-pinene, show plausible anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and neuropsychological potential, the current evidence does not support reducing the benefits of forest exposure to VOC inhalation alone. Rather, forest VOCs are best understood as one dimension of a broader multisensory and ecological therapeutic context. The article concludes that phytoncides and forest VOCs provide an important bridge between plant science, ecology, and forest therapy, while also requiring careful interpretation, methodological rigor, and resistance to overly reductionist claims.

Abstract

Abstract

This article explores scaffolding as a guiding principle in forest therapy and Shinrin-Yoku practice by examining its relationship to learner-centred pedagogy and participant-centred experience. Building on the argument that the effects of forest exposure depend not only on the environment itself but also on how the experience is structured, paced, and supported, the article considers how guidance can create conditions in which restoration, connection, and personal meaning are more likely to emerge. Rather than treating the guide as a controller of outcomes, the discussion frames guiding as a process of holding structure in service of the participant’s unfolding experience.

Drawing on educational theory, the article argues that guided forest therapy shares with learner-centred pedagogy a central challenge: how to accommodate individual differences while preserving coherence, safety, and intention. This question is examined through The Mindful Tourist’s Scaffolded Model of Engagement, which is presented as a participant-centred adaptation of learner-centred principles to guided Shinrin-Yoku and forest therapy sessions. The model is based on gradual release, whereby external structure is progressively softened and participants are given increasing freedom in how they relate to the forest, the invitations, and their own inner experience.

The article suggests that scaffolding in forest therapy is not a means of limiting freedom, but of making meaningful freedom possible. By offering a progression from more structured sensory and relational support toward greater openness and autonomy, the scaffolded approach helps participants enter the experience with confidence, settle into the environment, and engage the forest in a way that is both safe and personally significant. In this sense, scaffolding is understood as a practical and relational bridge between theory and practice, showing how guided forest therapy may support participant agency, depth of experience, and therapeutic presence without reducing the encounter to a fixed protocol.

Abstract

Abstract

A growing body of research suggests that contact with natural environments supports human well-being across psychological, cognitive, emotional, and physiological domains. Yet the mechanisms underlying these effects remain multidimensional and cannot be fully explained by any single theory. This article examines several influential theoretical perspectives that have shaped contemporary understanding of the relationship between nature and human well-being, including the Biophilia Hypothesis, Attention Restoration Theory, Stress Reduction Theory, Psychoevolutionary Theory, Nature Relatedness and Nature Connectedness, and the framework of Favorite Places. Each of these perspectives offers a distinct yet complementary account of how natural environments may influence human functioning, whether through evolutionary affiliation with life, cognitive restoration, psychophysiological stress recovery, emotional regulation, subjective connectedness, or attachment to meaningful places.

Rather than treating these theories as competing explanations, the article argues that they are best understood as overlapping and mutually enriching frameworks. Taken together, they suggest that nature may promote well-being by reducing stress, restoring directed attention, eliciting positive affect, strengthening identity and belonging, supporting self-regulation, and fostering a deeper sense of relationship with the more-than-human world. The article further considers how these theoretical perspectives may be integrated in the context of forest therapy, forest bathing, and Shinrin Yoku, where guided engagement with the forest provides a practical setting in which multiple restorative pathways may converge. In doing so, the article aims to build a bridge between environmental psychology, health research, and applied forest therapy practice.

10.65410/syjI120230415en6

Abstract

Understanding the effects of exposure to forest environments requires attention not only to subjective experience, but also to the physiological processes through which restoration, stress regulation, and well-being may be expressed in the body. Although participants in guided forest therapy sessions often report feeling calmer, lighter, more grounded, mentally refreshed, or even sleepy, such experiences may also be accompanied by measurable biological changes. For this reason, physiological markers have become an important focus in research on forest-based interventions.

This chapter examines physiological markers as one means of understanding how the body responds to stress, relaxation, environmental exposure, and emotional regulation in the context of forest therapy. Particular attention is given to hormonal markers associated with the stress response, especially adrenaline, noradrenaline, and cortisol; inflammatory markers such as interleukins, tumor necrosis factor, and C-reactive protein; and autonomic indicators, including heart-rate variability. The chapter also considers the interaction between the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, the autonomic nervous system, and inflammatory processes, highlighting their relevance for understanding recovery and adaptive regulation.

Rather than reducing the forest therapy experience to biological measurement alone, this  article situates physiological markers within a broader psychophysiological framework. These indicators do not capture the full meaning of well-being or the therapeutic encounter in the forest, yet they offer valuable insight into how the body may shift from states of heightened activation toward regulation, recovery, and balance. In this way, the chapter aims to bridge subjective reports of restoration with measurable physiological processes, contributing to a more integrated understanding of forest therapy and its potential relevance for human health and well-being.

Abstract

his article examines the role of olfaction as a key pathway through which forest environments may influence human physiology, emotion, and well-being. While guided forest therapy and Shinrin Yoku are often discussed in relation to visual beauty, attentional restoration, and symbolic or experiential connection with nature, the sense of smell provides a particularly direct route by which the forest enters the human body and nervous system. Through the inhalation of plant-derived volatile compounds, including phytoncides, the forest atmosphere may affect sensory perception, emotional processing, autonomic regulation, and broader psychophysiological states.

The article develops this process through the concept of a circle of influence, understood as the dynamic sequence by which plants release volatile compounds into the atmosphere, these compounds are inhaled and detected through the olfactory system, and olfactory signals are subsequently transmitted to neural, emotional, and autonomic pathways that shape bodily and psychological response. In this sense, forest exposure is approached not as a passive backdrop to human experience, but as an active atmospheric encounter linking environment and organism.

The discussion begins with the anatomy and physiology of olfaction, including the dual nature of smell, the structure of the olfactory system, and the transduction of odorant molecules into neural signals. It then considers the privileged neuroanatomical position of olfaction, whose pathways provide relatively direct access to limbic and hypothalamic regions implicated in memory, emotion, endocrine function, and autonomic balance. The article further explores how inhaled aromatic compounds may participate in an olfactory-limbic-autonomic pathway associated with relaxation and shifts toward parasympathetic regulation. Forest-derived volatiles and selected essential-oil compounds are discussed as examples of how scent may contribute to reduced arousal, calmer affective tone, and physiological settling. At the same time, the article maintains a cautious perspective, emphasizing that these effects should not be reduced to isolated chemical events, but understood within the wider multisensory and ecological context of forest experience.