Author: Milena A. Guziak

The philosophical concept of ‘well-being’ refers to how well a person’s life is going for them, encompassing more than just health. Health may contribute to well-being, but it is not the sole component. Philosophers also consider the ‘negative’ aspects of a person’s life, such as experiencing terrible agony, which might result in a negative well-being state. They distinguish well-being from terms like ‘welfare’ and ‘happiness,’ the latter of which may refer to short-lived states of contentment in everyday language but often has a broader scope in philosophical discussions. The term ‘well-being’ is preferred over ‘happiness’ to encompass the broader notion of what makes life good for an individual, including non-human entities like plants. This concept, linked to the Greek term ‘eudaimonia,’ highlights the idea of flourishing rather than mere happiness. Aristotle’s view that a friend’s well-being is closely tied to one’s own suggests that well-being can be interconnected without conflating individual interests.

While understanding well-being from a philosophical perspective is important, we must also consider the physiological evidence on well-being, which will be useful in the context of forest bathing, forest therapy, or Shinrin Yoku. Mental health, as defined by the World Health Organization, is “a state of well-being in which the individual realizes their own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively, and is able to make a contribution to their community” (World Health Organization, 2005). This definition emphasizes that mental health encompasses more than just the absence of mental disorders, including the broader concept of well-being. 

In the past two decades, interest in well-being and happiness has surged, with an increasing number of scientific publications across various disciplines. Well-being is recognized as a protective factor linked to overall physical and mental health (Diener et al., 2017; Greenspoon and Saklofske, 2001). Research shows that the positive effects of well-being are independent of the negative impacts of conditions like depression, highlighting the importance of studying well-being (Howell et al., 2007). Additionally, well-being is associated with positive life outcomes, including longer, healthier lives (James et al., 2019; Kim et al., 2019; Zaninotto and Steptoe, 2019), academic achievement, happy marriages, and increased productivity at work ( Lyubomirsky et al., 2005; Maccagnan et al., 2019; Oswald et al., 2015).

Behavioral and molecular genetics studies indicate that biological and physiological factors significantly influence individual differences in well-being. Recent genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified specific genetic variants associated with well-being with findings suggesting gene enrichment in the subiculum (part of the hippocampus) and GABAergic interneurons as related to the well-being spectrum (Baselmans et al., 2019a). These genetic discoveries provide insights into the physiology of well-being, though comprehensive research on physiological measures remains limited as of today.

So what are these physiological markers?

HORMONES

Hormones are chemical messengers produced by the endocrine glands and released into the bloodstream, traveling to various organs and tissues to regulate physiological processes, including growth, metabolism, and reproduction. These hormones are present in different biological fluids such as blood, urine, saliva, and even hair. Although both hormones and neurotransmitters serve as messengers, they differ significantly in their site of release, action, and speed. Hormones act throughout the entire body and have slower, longer-lasting effects, while neurotransmitters operate locally within the central nervous system and act more rapidly.

There are three primary stress hormones: adrenaline (indicating mental stress), noradrenaline (indicating physical stress), and cortisol (indicating both) (de Vries et al., 2021). Adrenaline, released from the adrenal medulla, increasee anticipation, unpredictability, and emotional arousal. Noradrenaline, predominantly a neurotransmitter of the sympathetic system, rises during physical activity. Cortisol is released by the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in response to stress.

A review by Rector and Friedman (2018) highlighted the association between well-being and hormones. Adrenal hormones like cortisol can cross the blood-brain barrier and influence subjective experiences, including well-being. The most commonly studied hormone in this context is cortisol, which can be measured through various means, including overall levels, daily decline (diurnal slope), and the response after waking up (cortisol awakening response, CAR) (Chida and Steptoe, 2009; Fries et al., 2009). 

In relation to forest therapy,  forest bathing or Shinrin Yoku, research has shown that  forest atmosphere (phytoncides) can reduce stress hormones like adrenaline, noradrenaline, and cortisol, aiding in stress management (Park et al., 2010). The effect of forest bathing on adrenaline is more significant than on noradrenaline, suggesting a greater impact on mental stress than physical stress. The very first study conducted inJapan (Miyazaki, 1990, 1996) and other studies also support the finding that Shinrin Yoku reduces cortisol levels in saliva, further indicating its efficacy in stress reduction.

In addition, recent research has highlighted the complex interactions between the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and the autonomic nervous system (ANS) throughout the lifespan. These interactions are crucial in understanding how stress affects overall well-being.

The HPA axis plays a central role in the body’s response to stress by regulating cortisol release, a hormone often associated with stress. The autonomic nervous system, which includes the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, controls involuntary bodily functions such as heart rate and digestion. The parasympathetic nervous system, in particular, is involved in promoting relaxation and recovery.

Studies in healthy adults and adolescents have shown that higher cortisol levels are often associated with lower heart rate variability (HRV), a measure of the variation in time between heartbeats. HRV is driven by parasympathetic activity, with higher HRV indicating better autonomic flexibility and a greater ability to adapt to stress. Therefore, the finding that higher cortisol levels correspond to lower HRV suggests a link between elevated stress levels and reduced autonomic function (Philippi et. al., 2024)

This relationship has significant implications for stress and well-being. Chronic stress can lead to sustained high cortisol levels, which may impair the body’s ability to regulate stress responses effectively. This impairment can manifest as reduced HRV, indicating a decreased capacity for physiological recovery and relaxation. Consequently, this can negatively impact overall well-being, as the body remains in a heightened state of stress.

Understanding the interplay between the HPA axis and ANS can inform interventions aimed at improving well-being. For instance, practices like Shinrin-yoku (forest bathing) have been shown to reduce cortisol levels and increase HRV, promoting relaxation and stress recovery. By enhancing parasympathetic activity and lowering cortisol levels, such interventions can help mitigate the adverse effects of chronic stress on well-being (Li, 2022)

INFLAMMATORY MARKERS

The immune system is the body’s defense mechanism against infections and diseases, involving various biological structures and processes. When the immune system is activated, it triggers an inflammatory response, leading to the production of inflammatory markers like interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, interferon (IFN)-γ, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and C-reactive protein (CRP). These cytokines act as chemical messengers, activating different parts of the immune response. Baseline levels of these cytokines have been associated with various traits and behaviors. For instance, CRP levels rise in response to acute stress, and individuals with depression often have higher baseline CRP levels (Khandaker et al., 2014; Osimo et al., 2019).

Proinflammatory cytokines are signaling molecules that play a crucial role in the body’s immune response by promoting inflammation. When these cytokines increase, it typically indicates an ongoing immune response to injury, infection, or stress. Conversely, a decrease in proinflammatory cytokines suggests a reduction in inflammation, which can be beneficial in managing chronic diseases and improving overall health.

In relation to forest therapy, shinrin yoku or forest bathing, several studies have investigated the effects of forest-based interventions like walking in forest environments on the levels of proinflammatory cytokines. 

A. Walking Intervention in Healthy Male University Students:

Measured Cytokines: IL-6 and TNF-α.

Findings: Significant changes were observed in both cytokines, indicating a modulation of the immune response through physical activity in a forest setting.

B. Walking Intervention for Patients with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD):

Measured Cytokines: IL-6, IL-8, IFN-γ, IL-1β, and TNF-α.

Findings: Significant changes were reported in IL-6, IL-8, IFN-γ, and IL-1β, but not in TNF-α. This suggests that the intervention had a broad impact on reducing inflammation, although the response of TNF-α varied.

B. Walking Intervention for Chronic Heart Failure Patients:

Measured Cytokines: IL-6 and TNF-α.

Findings: A significant decrease in IL-6 levels was observed, while no significant change was reported in TNF-α levels. This indicates that IL-6 might be more sensitive to the intervention in this patient population.

C. Additional studies further support these findings:

IL-6: In four studies, IL-6 levels were measured, and two of them reported significant decreases. This suggests that interventions in natural settings can effectively reduce IL-6, a marker of inflammation.

 IL-8: Two studies reported significant decreases in IL-8 levels indicating a reduction in inflammation.

TNF-α: In three studies, TNF-α levels were measured, with two reporting significant decreases . This suggests a potential but variable impact on TNF-α.

C-Reactive Protein (CRP): CRP levels were measured in three studies, with one reporting a significant decrease .CRP is another marker of inflammation, and its reduction indicates a positive anti-inflammatory effect.

D. Other Markers:

One study  measured several other markers, including IL-1β, IFN-γ, pulmonary and activation-regulated chemokine, tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1, and surfactant protein D, all of which were significantly decreased. This comprehensive reduction indicates a broad anti-inflammatory effect of the intervention.

The interplay between stress, inflammation, and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA)

Stress and Inflammation: When the body experiences stress, it activates inflammatory responses both in the brain and throughout the body (peripherally). This has been supported by substantial evidence (Rohleder, 2014; Calcia et al., 2016).

Communication Between Systems: The neuroendocrine system (which regulates hormones) and the immune system communicate with each other. During stress, this communication involves the activation of the HPA axis through the secretion of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH).

Role of CRH: CRH is a hormone that plays a key role in stress response. It typically suppresses immune responses by prompting the release of glucocorticoids (GCs) from the adrenal glands. GCs are known for their immunosuppressive and anti-inflammatory properties (Sorrells et al., 2009).

Pro-inflammatory Effects of GCs: While GCs are generally anti-inflammatory, recent research has shown that they can also have pro-inflammatory effects (Elenkov, 2008). They can enhance the expression of inflammasomes like NLRP3, which promote the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β in response to signals like adenosine triphosphate (ATP) (Busillo et al., 2011).

Feedback Loop: Pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-α) further stimulate the HPA axis, leading to increased levels of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and glucocorticoids. These hormones then act to inhibit the production of the cytokines, creating a feedback loop (Alley et al., 2006; Danese et al., 2007; Steptoe et al., 2007; Miller et al., 2008).

The connection between stress, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, inflammation, and the nervous system 

Stress and the Nervous System

Stress Response Activation: When the body perceives stress, the nervous system, specifically the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), is activated. This triggers the “fight or flight” response, preparing the body to respond to the threat.

Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis: The hypothalamus, a region in the brain, responds to stress by releasing corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH). CRH signals the pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which then prompts the adrenal glands to release glucocorticoids (GCs) such as cortisol.

Glucocorticoids (GCs) and Immune System

Immune Suppression: Initially, GCs help to suppress the immune response and reduce inflammation, preventing the body from overreacting to stress.

Pro-inflammatory Role: Despite their anti-inflammatory properties, GCs can also enhance the expression of inflammasomes like NLRP3, promoting the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β in response to signals like adenosine triphosphate (ATP). This dual role means that while GCs can reduce inflammation, they can also contribute to it under certain conditions.

Pro-inflammatory Cytokines and the Nervous System

Cytokine Signaling: Pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1, IL-6, TNF-α) can communicate with the nervous system, influencing brain function and behavior. These cytokines can stimulate the HPA axis, leading to further production of ACTH and cortisol, creating a feedback loop that regulates both stress and inflammation.

Nervous System Influence: Chronic stress and sustained high levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines can affect the nervous system, leading to alterations in neurotransmitter function and potentially contributing to mental health disorders such as depression and anxiety.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS): The SNS, part of the autonomic nervous system, is responsible for the immediate “fight or flight” response, releasing adrenaline and noradrenaline, which prepare the body for rapid action.

Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS): The PNS promotes relaxation and recovery, counterbalancing the SNS. High levels of stress can impair the PNS, leading to a reduced ability to relax and recover, which can affect overall well-being.

Heart Rate Variability (HRV) and Well-being

HRV as an Indicator: HRV, which measures the variation in time between heartbeats, is driven by parasympathetic activity. Higher HRV indicates better autonomic flexibility and a greater ability to adapt to stress. Lower HRV, often associated with higher cortisol levels, suggests reduced autonomic function and a decreased capacity for physiological recovery.

The body’s response to stress is designed to protect you by managing inflammation and preventing the immune system from overreacting. However,  if stress is constant or chronic, this system can become unbalanced. Chronic stress can lead to prolonged inflammation, which can be harmful and contribute to various health issue

Abbreviations

CRH (Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone): A hormone released by the hypothalamus that stimulates the release of ACTH from the pituitary gland, initiating the body’s response to stress.

GCs (Glucocorticoids): A class of steroid hormones released by the adrenal glands. They are known for their ability to suppress immune responses and reduce inflammation. However, recent research suggests they can also have pro-inflammatory effects under certain conditions.

NLRP3 (NOD-, LRR-, and pyrin domain-containing protein 3): A type of inflammasome, which is a multi-protein complex involved in the activation of inflammatory responses. It plays a key role in the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines like IL-1β.

IL-1β (Interleukin-1 beta): A pro-inflammatory cytokine produced by activated macrophages. It is part of the body’s immune response to infections and injuries and plays a role in the development of inflammation.

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate): A molecule that carries energy within cells. It can act as a danger signal in the extracellular space, activating inflammasomes like NLRP3.

IL-1 (Interleukin-1): A group of 11 cytokines, of which IL-1β is a prominent member, involved in the regulation of immune and inflammatory responses.

IL-6 (Interleukin-6): A cytokine that plays a role in inflammation and infection responses. It is produced by various cell types, including T cells and macrophages.

TNF-α (Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha): A cytokine involved in systemic inflammation and the acute phase reaction. It is produced primarily by macrophages.

ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic Hormone): A hormone produced by the pituitary gland that stimulates the production and release of glucocorticoids (like cortisol) from the adrenal cortex.

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Writing in progress.

Miyazaki, Y., 1990. 森林浴の心理的効果と唾液中コルチゾール. 日生気誌(Jpn.J.Biometeor.)27(Suppl.). 

Miyzaki, Y., 1996. 森の香. ISBN 97849383446

Almost all philosophical scholars agree that pleasure is a typical aspect of aesthetic experience, though some, such as Carroll (2006) and Adorno (1997), argue it is neither essential nor necessary. While they hold this view, denying the importance of pleasure in aesthetic experience overlooks individual needs and the various purposes it may serve. For Shinrin Yoku, Forest Bathing, or Forest Therapy Guides, and those who find solace in the forest, the experience of pleasure is essential and/or necessary. Even if it cannot always be precisely defined or described, there is an underlying sense of admiration, curiosity, wonder, and creativity that inherently leads to what seems to be a form of pleasure rather than suffering – the felt sense of undefinable. 

The source of this pleasure is not always clear, especially when considering views that art serves no function beyond its own existence – the art for its own sake. It would be utterly naive to think the same of the forest as a living ecosystem and  as a provider for Forest Therapy or Shinrin Yoku experiences – guided or non-guided. Some propose that pleasure in aesthetic experience stems from the positive evaluation of an object or its creator, the joy of engaging our mental faculties, the relief from practical pressures, the acquisition of knowledge, or the connection with others. The claim that pleasure derives from the positive evaluation of an object is particularly popular, suggesting we take pleasure in an object’s intrinsic value, functionality, or the skill of its creator.

In the forest, these sources of pleasure become palpable. The beauty of a towering tree or a delicate flower can evoke a deep sense of admiration for nature’s intrinsic value. Engaging with the forest through sensory activities of our choice, such as feeling the texture of bark, stimulates our mental faculties and seems to bring joy. The tranquility of the forest, when seen  as  a restorative environment, offers a reprieve from daily stresses.  Discovering new aspects of the natural world through Shinrin Yoku practice may also bring a sense of wonder and knowledge or even inspiration by and/or pleasure in the facilitation skills of the guide. 

Pleasure can be understood as a phenomenological feeling with a positive hedonic underlining or as a pro-attitude with positive content. The enjoyment of mental activity, a view championed by Kant (1914), posits that the free play of our mental faculties provides pleasure. This liberation from structured thought may offer a joyful experience to some, whilst others may preferred a more structured engagement. The element of free play and agency is crucial for Shinrin Yoku invitations and in Shinrin Yoku or Forest Therapy sessions. The participants, likewise guides,  have power to liberate themselves from what stands in their way of expressing the self authentically. 

Schopenhauer (1969) argued that aesthetic experience offers a reprieve from the suffering of practical life. Collingwood (1958) suggested that expressing and clarifying emotions through art brings pleasure by transforming and controlling these feelings. Other theories focus on the pleasure of gaining knowledge or understanding, with thinkers like Goodman (1976) emphasizing the joy of discovery. Lastly, some associate pleasure in aesthetic experience with connecting to others, whether through the artist’s inner life or shared reactions to the art.

As it can be noticed, aesthetic experience theories from a philosophical perspective have much to offer when attempting to grasp a sense of immersion in the forest or other contexts nature provides. These theories provide a framework for understanding the process when we engage deeply with nature. 

Definitions

Phenomenological Feeling: This term relates to the subjective, first-person experience of an individual. It’s about how an experience feels from the inside, encompassing all the sensory, emotional, and cognitive aspects of that experience.

Positive Hedonic Underlining: “Hedonic” pertains to pleasure and pain. A positive hedonic tone means that the experience is pleasurable or enjoyable. It’s the aspect of the feeling that makes it pleasant rather than neutral or unpleasant.

So, a phenomenological feeling with a positive hedonic tone is an internal, subjective experience that is distinctly pleasant. This could be the feeling of joy, contentment, or satisfaction that one might experience when engaging in an aesthetically pleasing activity, such as creating a mandala from nature’s gifts (a beautiful piece of art).

Further Reading

Carroll, Noël, 2006, “Aesthetic experience: A question of content,” in Kieran (ed.) 2006, pp. 69–97.

Components of aesthetic experience: aesthetic fascination, aesthetic appraisal, and aesthetic emotion

Adorno, Theodor, 1997, Aesthetic Theory, Gretel Adorno and Rolf Tiedemann (eds.), Robert Hullot-Kentor (trans.), Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

Kant, Immanuel, 1914, Critique of Judgment, J. H. Bernard, D.D., D.C.L. (trans.), Macmilian and Co., Limited

Schopenhauer, Arthur, 1969, The World as Will and Representation, E.F.J. Payne (trans.), Indian Hills, CO: Falcon’s Wing Press.

As a Shinrin Yoku guide and person who simply feels the forest, one of the aspects of facilitating forest bathing sessions is witnessing the myriad ways in which natural scenes elicit deep, emotional responses from participants, which are not forced by the guide but rather are in an unfolding process with its own pace. These responses, ranging from simple appreciation to complex feelings of awe and wonder, are not only inherently valuable but also contribute significantly to psychological and behavioral well-being. The connection between humans and nature may go beyond mere preference; it may encompass  emotional and perceptual experiences that are be deeply rooted in our sense of self and  identity,

Engaging with the aesthetic qualities of nature during Shinrin Yoku sessions can lead to increased well-being, prosocial behaviors, and a stronger inclination towards environmental stewardship. By understanding the interplay between the inherent properties of natural landscapes and the psychological processing of these properties by the participant, we can appreciate why certain environments resonate deeper with us.

Range of Aesthetic Responses:

• Natural scenes evoke aesthetic responses from simple liking to complex emotional states like awe and wonder (Joye & Bolderdijk, 2015; Silvia et al., 2015).
• These responses have intrinsic value and are linked to psychological and behavioral benefits, such as increased well-being and prosocial behaviors (Capaldi et al., 2017; DeLucio & Mugica, 1994; Zhang, Howell & Iyer, 2014; Zhang et al., 2014).

Environmental Aesthetics:

• Research traditionally focuses on preferences for different landscapes (e.g., forests, savannahs) and their formal properties (Heerwagen & Orians, 1993; Ulrich, 1983; Yang et al., 2021).
• Aesthetic experiences result from an interaction between landscape properties and the viewer’s processing of these properties (Jacobsen, 2006).

Psychological Connection:

• The unity of perceiver and object is essential for aesthetic experiences of nature (Berleant, 1992).
• Positive aesthetic outcomes occur when an artwork or natural scene aligns with an important aspect of the viewer’s identity (Pelowski et al., 2017).

Connectedness to Nature:

• Reflects the degree to which nature is incorporated into one’s sense of self (Mayer & Frantz, 2004; Perrin & Benassi, 2009).
• Characterized by emotional attachment and beliefs about one’s connection to the natural world (Schultz, 2002).

Impact on Aesthetic Sensitivity:

• Individuals with higher connectedness to nature report greater restorative effects, preference for landscapes, and positive emotional outcomes (Berto et al., 2018; Davis & Gatersleben, 2013; McMahan et al., 2018; Tang, Sullivan & Chang, 2015).
• They also have enhanced perceptual qualities of natural scenes and are more emotionally affected by degraded landscapes (Clayton, 2021).

Attention and Aesthetic Experience:

• Higher connectedness to nature is associated with increased visual engagement with natural scenes (Bingjing, Chen & Shuhua, 2022; Wu et al., 2013).
• Enhanced attention allows for more detailed extraction of image features, contributing to improved aesthetic evaluation (van den Berg, Joye & Koole, 2016).

Mediation by Attention:

• Visual attention (measured by dwell time) mediates the relationship between connectedness to nature and aesthetic responses (Brieber et al., 2014; Palumbo et al., 2023).
• Greater visual attention leads to a deeper appreciation of the image’s aesthetic qualities.

Empirical Findings:

• Studies show a positive correlation between viewing time and perceived restorativeness of scenes (van den Berg, Joye & Koole, 2016).
• Individuals higher in connectedness to nature spend more time exploring natural features within scenes (Bingjing, Chen & Shuhua, 2022; Wu et al., 2013).

DEFINITIONS

Dwell time is a measure of the amount of time a person spends looking at a particular area or object within a scene. In the context of aesthetic responses to natural scenes, dwell time typically refers to the total duration that a viewer’s gaze is fixed on specific elements of a natural landscape during a viewing episode. This measure is often used in eye-tracking studies to quantify visual attention.

Perceived Restorativeness of Scenes refers to how individuals perceive and evaluate the restorative potential of a particular environment or scene. For example, restorative environments are settings that help individuals recover from mental fatigue, stress, and negative emotions. Natural environments, such as forests, parks, and gardens, are often considered highly restorative.

In an earlier article, I provided a concise overview of aesthetic experiences, which will be beneficial for developing practical invitations for Shinrin Yoku sessions moving forward. 

Form and Function

Invitation: “Take a moment to observe the form and structure of the natural elements around you. Notice the symmetry of leaves, the proportionality of tree branches, and the harmonious shapes found in the forest. Let your mind appreciate these forms without thinking about their function or use.”

Power to Please

Invitation: “Find a spot in the forest where you feel particularly drawn. Focus on the sensations this place evokes in you. Is it the play of light through the leaves, the sound of rustling trees, or the fragrance of the earth? Allow yourself to fully experience the pleasure these sensations bring.”

Merit

Invitation: “Walk slowly and mindfully along the path. As you do, take note of anything that captures your attention—a flower, a rock, a bird. Consider what it is about this object that merits your admiration. What qualities make it beautiful or intriguing to you?”

Emotional Expression

Transfer: “Choose a natural element that speaks to you—perhaps a tree, a stream, or a meadow. Sit quietly with it and imagine the emotions it might express if it were alive like you. What stories or feelings might it share?”

Projection: “As you walk, try to empathize with the forest itself. Imagine what it feels like to be a tree swaying in the wind, or a leaf drifting to the ground. How does this change your perception of the forest?”

Correspondence: “Look for patterns in nature that resonate with your own feelings. Perhaps the gentle curve of a stream mirrors your sense of calm, or the rugged bark of a tree reflects your resilience. What connections can you find?”

Transformation: “Reflect on any emotions you are carrying with you today. Find a quiet spot to sit and let the forest help transform these feelings. Maybe the whispering leaves can soothe your worries, or the strength of the trees can bolster your confidence.”

Fundamental Nature

Invitation: “Spend some time contemplating the larger essence of the forest. How does being here connect you to the broader world, to the fundamental rhythms and cycles of nature? What truths about life do you feel the forest reveals to you?”

Pleasure

Invitation: “Walk slowly and allow yourself to feel the joy in the simple act of moving through the forest. Pay attention to how your body feels as it moves, the sensation of the ground under your feet, and the air on your skin. Relish the pleasure of these sensations.”

Conceptualization

Invitation: “While exploring the forest, let go of labeling or categorizing what you see. Instead, simply experience each element as it is. Notice the colors, shapes, and textures without trying to name or define them.”

Imagination

Free Play: “Find a comfortable spot to sit or lie down. Close your eyes and let your imagination wander. Picture the forest as a living, breathing entity. What stories does it tell? What images come to mind?”

Creative Engagement: “As you walk, engage with the forest as if you are part of a story or a play. Imagine you are a character in this natural world. How does this perspective shift your experience?”

Emotion

Invitation: “Tune into your emotional state as you move through the forest. Let the sights, sounds, and smells of nature evoke feelings within you. Whether it’s joy, peace, nostalgia, or even melancholy, embrace these emotions fully.”

Disinterest

Invitation: “Practice observing the forest with a sense of disinterest. This doesn’t mean lack of interest, but rather appreciating the forest without any desire to change or use it. Simply take in the beauty of nature for its own sake.”

Normativity

Invitation: “As you experience the forest, consider that your feelings and responses are not just personal but could be shared with others. Reflect on what it is about this environment that you think everyone should appreciate. How would you share this experience with others?”

Aesthetic experience is a perceptual experience centered on the beauty of an object, such as art or nature, but it can also involve other qualities like sublimity or emotional depth. The philosophical study of aesthetic experience emerged prominently in the 18th century and involves various theories on its nature, value, and focus.

Philosophers have used the concept of aesthetic experience for multiple purposes, including defining art, advocating for the importance of art criticism, and emphasizing the personal or social significance of education in sensibility. Some even consider aesthetic experience as a form of cognitive contact with the world’s fundamental metaphysics. 

Main Concepts and Definitions:

Aesthetic Experience: A perceptual or emotional experience focused on the beauty, sublimity, or expressive qualities of an object (elements noticed in nature), often involving a form of cognitive or imaginative engagement.

Form and Function: Aesthetic experience can be centered on the formal properties of an object (e.g., shape, color, texture, etc.) and its function or purpose. Historically, form and function were seen as interconnected in the perception of beauty.

Power to Please: Beauty or sublimity can be viewed as properties that have the power to produce pleasurable responses in observers. This view aligns with empiricist traditions where aesthetic qualities are seen as secondary qualities dependent on human perception.

Merit: Aesthetic experiences often involve a sense that the object merits or deserves a particular response, such as pleasure or admiration. This notion is particularly emphasized in Kantian aesthetics, where aesthetic judgments are seen as universal and disinterested.

(Emotional) Expression: Aesthetic experience often focuses on the expressive qualities of objects (elements in nature), which can convey emotions, attitudes, or entire perceptual experiences. Theories here include:

• • Transfer: Feelings are transferred from the artist (a Shinrin Yoku Guide/participant/forest) to the perceiver (a participant/Shinrin Yoku Guide)
  • Projection: The perceiver (guide and participants) projects emotions or experiences onto the object.
  • Correspondence: There’s a perceived resemblance between the object and certain human experiences.
  • Transformation: The creation process transforms raw feelings into clarified and organized emotional expressions.

Fundamental Nature: Some theories suggest that aesthetic experience offers insight into the fundamental nature of reality, providing a unique form of knowledge about the world’s structure and our place in it. This view is prominent in Romanticism, German Idealism, and existential phenomenology.

Mental Aspects of Aesthetic Experience:

Pleasure: Almost universally acknowledged as a typical aspect of aesthetic experience, though its necessity and source vary across theories. Pleasure may derive from positive evaluation, mental activity, liberation from practical concerns, knowledge gain, or sense of agancy, social connection. 

Positive Evaluation: Participants might feel pleasure from simply observing the beauty of the forest. The vibrant green leaves, the intricate patterns of the tree bark, or the delicate petals of a wildflower can evoke a deep sense of appreciation and joy. This positive evaluation of nature’s intrinsic beauty can enhance the overall aesthetic experience.

Mental Activity: The forest environment often stimulates mental activity, allowing participants to engage in reflection and imagination. For example, noticing the interplay of light and shadow among the trees might lead to creative thoughts or memories, providing a sense of pleasure derived from mental engagement,

Liberation from Practical Concerns: Shinrin Yoku offers a temporary escape from daily stresses and responsibilities. The act of slowly walking through the forest, breathing deeply, and immersing oneself in the natural surroundings can provide a sense of liberation and relief, fostering a pleasurable experience of freedom and tranquility.

Knowledge/Take-aways Gain: Participants may find pleasure in learning about the flora and fauna within the forest, the history of the land, Japanese concepts, benefits of spending time in the forest. A guide might share interesting facts about the above and more, enriching the experience with educational value. This newfound knowledge can lead to a deeper appreciation and a sense of satisfaction.

Sense of Agency: Engaging in mindful practices during a Shinrin Yoku session, such as choosing a spot to sit quietly or selecting a particular tree to observe closely, can enhance a participant’s sense of agency. Making these personal choices within the session through invitations fosters a sense of control and empowerment, contributing to a pleasurable experience.

Social Connection: Sharing the experience with others, whether through guided group sessions  can enhance the pleasure of the session. The social interaction, shared observations, and collective appreciation of nature can strengthen bonds and create a sense of community, adding another layer of enjoyment.

Conceptualization: Some theories argue that aesthetic experience excludes conceptual thought, focusing instead on direct, non-conceptual engagement with the object. Others maintain that conceptualization is necessary for fully appreciating an artwork

Direct, Non-Conceptual Engagement: Some theories suggest that aesthetic experiences should be direct and non-conceptual, focusing on immediate sensory engagement with the object. In a Shinrin Yoku session, this might involve participants immersing themselves fully in the sensory aspects of the forest without labeling or analyzing what they encounter. For example:

• • • • Sensory Immersion: Participants might close their eyes to listen to the diverse sounds of the forest, such as birds chirping, leaves rustling, or a nearby stream flowing. This pure sensory experience allows for a direct connection with nature, fostering a state of mindfulness and presence.
      • Mindful Observation: Participants might spend time observing the intricate patterns on a leaf, the movement of insects, or the play of sunlight through the canopy, focusing solely on the sensory details without attaching labels or concepts.

Conceptual Engagement: Other theories argue that conceptual thought is necessary for a fuller appreciation of an aesthetic experience. In Shinrin Yoku session, this might involve understanding and reflecting on the ecological, cultural, or scientific aspects of the forest. For example:

• • • • Ecological Awareness: A guide might explain the interdependence of different species within the forest ecosystem, enhancing participants’ appreciation by providing a conceptual framework for understanding the complex web of life they are observing.
      • Cultural Significance: The guide might share stories or traditions related to the forest, such as the cultural importance of certain trees or plants in local folklore, adding a layer of meaning to the experience.
      • Scientific Insight: Learning about the physiological benefits of forest bathing, such as how phytoncides (aromatic compounds released by trees) can boost the immune system, can deepen participants’ appreciation and engagement with the environment.

Blending Both Approaches: Often, the most enriching experiences in  a Shinrin Yoku session can arise from blending both direct sensory engagement and conceptual understanding. For example:

• • • • Guided Reflections: A session might begin with a period of quiet, non-conceptual immersion in the forest, followed by guided reflections that provide conceptual insights, helping participants connect their direct sensory experiences with a context.
      • Interactive Engagemnet: Invitations that encourage both sensory engagement and learning, such as identifying different tree species by their leaves or bark while also understanding their role in the ecosystem, can provide a balanced approach that enriches the overall experience – depending on the intention of a guide of a session.

Imagination: Imagination plays a crucial role in synthesizing sensory input and engaging with art beyond what is perceptually given. This can involve free play, make-believe, or recreating the artist’s original intent. In the context of forest bathing sessions, this can be a sense of agency (or sense of control, is the subjective awareness of initiating, executing, and controlling one’s own volitional actions in the session by the means of invitions)

Free Play and Make-Believe:

• • • • Creative Interaction with Nature: Participants can be encouraged to engage in playful and imaginative activities, such as imagining the forest as a magical realm or visualizing themselves as part of the forest ecosystem. 
      • Nature Stories: Guides might invite participants to create stories or narratives about the creatures and plants they encounter. For instance, imagining the life journey of a particular tree or the adventures of an insect can spark creativity and deepen engagement.

Recreating the Artist’s Original Intent:

• • • • Mindful Observations: Participants can be guided to observe the intricate details of the forest with the mindset of an artist. They might be encouraged to imagine the intention behind the patterns on leaves, the design of a spider’s web, or the structure of a flower.
      • Artistic Reflections: After a period of sensory immersion/activation, participants might be invited to express their experiences through drawing, writing, or other creative forms. This can help in internalizing and personalizing their interaction with the forest.

Sense of Agency:

• • • • Personalized Invitations: During a Shinrin Yoku session, participants are often given “invitations” to engage with their surroundings in various ways. These invitations might include activities like touching the bark of a tree, collecting different types of leaves, or simply lying on the forest floor and observing the sky.
      • Volitional Actions: By choosing how they wish to interact with the environment, participants exercise a sense of control and personal agency. This can enhance their sense of ownership over the experience, making it more meaningful and impactful.

Synthesizing Sensory Input:

• • • • Imaginative Engagement: Participants can be encouraged to imagine how different sensory inputs connect. For example, while listening to the sound of a stream, they might visualize its path through the forest, its role in nourishing the plants, and its journey to larger bodies of water.
      • Sensory Integration: Imagination can help in blending different sensory experiences into a cohesive whole. Imagining the taste of a forest berry, the smell of pine needles, and the touch of moss can create a rich, multi-sensory tapestry.

Practical Examples:

• • • • Guided Visualization: A guide might lead a visualization exercise where participants imagine themselves as a tree, feeling the sun’s warmth, the soil’s support, and the wind’s touch. This can deepen empathy and connection to the natural world.
      • Role-Playing Activities: Participants might be invited to take on the roles of various forest inhabitants, imagining their lives, challenges, and interactions. This can foster a deeper understanding and appreciation of the ecosystem.

Emotion: Central to many theories, emotions can be felt as part of the aesthetic experience or as a response to the expressive properties of the object (e.g., a fallen tree, moss) and surroundings (i.e. forest). Some views propose a distinct “aesthetic emotion” felt across different experiences.

Expressive Properties of the Environment:

• • • • Natural Objects: Participants may feel a range of emotions in response to specific elements in the forest, such as a fallen tree or a patch of moss. These natural objects can evoke feelings of awe, serenity, nostalgia, or even sadness, depending on their appearance and the participant’s personal associations.
      • Surroundings: The overall atmosphere of the forest, with its sounds, scents, and sights, can elicit a emotional response. The rustling of leaves, the chirping of birds, and the earthy smell after rain can create a sense of peace and contentment.

Aesthetic Emotion:

• • • • Distinct Emotional Responses: Some theories propose the existence of a distinct “aesthetic emotion,” which is a unique type of feeling experienced during aesthetic encounters. In a forest bathing session, this might manifest as a deep sense of harmony, a feeling of being one with nature, or a transcendental state that goes beyond everyday emotions.
      • Emotional Resonance: Participants often report feelings of rejuvenation, calmness, and joy after engaging with the forest. These emotions are not merely reactions but are deeply intertwined with the aesthetic and sensory experiences of being in nature.

Emotional Engagement:

• • • • Mindful Presence: Guides encourage participants to be present and mindful, which allows them to fully experience and process their emotions in whatever way they choose to. By slowing down and paying attention to their surroundings, participants can become more attuned to their emotional responses.
      • Reflective Activities: Activities such as journaling, silent contemplation, or sharing experiences with the group can help participants articulate and understand in processing. Reflecting on how they feel in the forest can enhance their emotional awareness and deepen their connection to nature.

Disinterest: Aesthetic experience is often characterized by disinterested engagement, where the observer focuses on the object itself without concern for practical utility or personal gain. This concept, rooted in Kantian aesthetics, is interpreted in various ways across different theories.

Pure Engagement with Nature:

• • • • Focus on the Present: Participants in a Shinrin Yoku session might be encouraged to immerse themselves in the forest environment without any distractions or ulterior motives without any concern for their practical uses. In this process, they may find themselves becoming interested in whatever they choose to.
      • Observing for Observation’s Sake: The act of observing the intricate patterns of leaves, the texture of tree bark, or the play of light and shadow becomes an end in itself. Participants are guided to appreciate these elements simply for their inherent beauty and not for any potential benefits or uses they might offer.

Disinterested Pleasure:

• • • • Aesthetic Enjoyment: By adopting a disinterested stance, participants can derive pure aesthetic pleasure from their surroundings. This pleasure is detached from personal desires and instead stems from a deep appreciation of nature’s beauty. 
      • Mental Clarity: Disinterest allows for a form of mental clarity where the mind is free from the clutter of practical concerns and can fully engage with the present moment. 

Interpretations of Disinterest:

• • • • Kantian Perspective: According to Kant, true aesthetic appreciation involves a disinterested attitude where the observer’s focus is solely on the form and beauty of the object. In Shinrin Yoku, this can mean appreciating the forest without any thought of exploitation, utility, or personal gain.
      • Modern Interpretations: Contemporary theories might expand on this idea, suggesting that disinterest in nature helps cultivate a sense of humility and interconnectedness with the natural world. By not viewing nature as a resource to be used, participants can develop a more respectful and symbiotic relationship with their environment.

Normativity: Aesthetic experiences often involve normative claims, suggesting that certain responses to objects are appropriate or merited. This normativity can be universal or personalized, depending on the theory.

Universal Normative Claims:

• • • • Appropriate Responses:  Guides may recognize that certain responses to nature are universal, this we can say universally appropriate/accepted. For example, feelings of awe and reverence when encountering a towering ancient tree or a serene forest clearing in the middle of the forest might be considered merited responses. This indicates that some aesthetic experiences have a normative dimension, where certain emotional and cognitive reactions are seen as fitting.
      • Cultural and Ethical Standards: Normativity can also encompass cultural and ethical standards regarding the treatment of nature. Participants may be encouraged to approach the forest with respect and mindfulness, recognizing the intrinsic value of natural elements and the importance of conservation. This normative stance promotes a deeper, more ethical engagement with the environment.

Personalized Normative Claims:

• • • • Individual Experiences: While some responses may be universally accepted, guides also recognize the personalized nature of aesthetic experiences. Each participant’s background, preferences, and emotional state can influence their engagement with nature. Normativity in this context means acknowledging and validating diverse responses, whether it’s a sense of peace, joy, curiosity, or even melancholy.
      • Subjective Appropriateness: Personalized normative claims suggest that what is appropriate for one individual might differ for another. A guide might offer invitations that cater to various responses, encouraging participants to explore what feels personally meaningful and merited. This approach respects individual differences.

Those who train to become Forest Bathing, Forest Therapy, or Shinrin Yoku Guides recognize that participants exhibit a diverse array of responses during sessions, and all of these responses are considered valid and meaningful.

Further Reading

Components of aesthetic experience: aesthetic fascination, aesthetic appraisal, and aesthetic emotion

Level of attention mediates the association between connectedness to nature and aesthetic evaluations of photographs of nature

Aesthetic Philosophy in Shinrin Yoku Practice

Japanese aesthetics, though influenced by a rich history of art and poetics, formally emerged as a philosophical discipline in the nineteenth century. This article delves into some of the most influential aesthetic concepts in Japan, many of which were well established long before the formalization of aesthetics as a discipline. These include mono no aware (物の哀れ), wabi (侘), sabi (寂), yūgen (幽玄), iki (粋), and kire (切れ). Each of these concepts has shaped the Japanese approach to art, beauty, and the appreciation of life.

Mono no Aware (物の哀れ): The Pathos of Things

Mono no aware translates to “the pathos of things” and emphasizes the transient nature of life and beauty. The term combines “mono” (物), meaning “things,” and “aware” (哀れ), meaning “pathos” or “sensitivity.” This concept is deeply rooted in the appreciation of the ephemeral, capturing the beauty and sadness that comes with the awareness of impermanence.

Example:

In Murasaki Shikibu’s Genji Monogatari (The Tale of Genji), characters often experience profound emotions triggered by fleeting moments, such as the falling of cherry blossoms, which evoke a deep sense of mono no aware.

Wabi (侘): Simple, Austere Beauty

Wabi refers to a kind of beauty characterized by simplicity and austerity. It values the understated and the unpretentious, often associated with the appreciation of the imperfect and incomplete.

Example:

In the context of the tea ceremony, wabi is exemplified by the use of simple, rustic utensils and the preference for modest settings. A cracked tea bowl repaired with kintsugi (金継ぎ) – the art of mending with gold – embodies wabi by celebrating imperfections.

Sabi (寂): Rustic Patina

Sabi, often paired with wabi, signifies the beauty that comes with age. It appreciates the patina and wear that objects accumulate over time, suggesting a sense of tranquility and solitude.

Example:

A weathered garden stone or an aged piece of pottery that has developed a rich, textured surface over years of use represents sabi. The value lies in the history and experience that these objects symbolize.

 Yūgen (幽玄): Mysterious Grace

Yūgen describes a profound, mysterious sense of beauty that is elusive and beyond the grasp of words. It involves a deep appreciation for the subtle and the hidden.

Example:

In traditional Noh theater, yūgen is conveyed through the restrained and deliberate movements of the actors, evoking a sense of depth and mystery. The audience is invited to use their imagination to fill in the gaps, creating a richer experience.

Iki (粋): Refined Style

Iki represents a refined style that is chic and sophisticated. It originated in the Edo period, particularly within the urban pleasure quarters, and is associated with a subtle and understated elegance.

Example:

The attire and demeanor of a geisha, with their understated beauty and graceful movements, exemplify iki. The elegance of wearing thin fabric, lightly applied makeup, and a relaxed posture all contribute to this aesthetic.

Kire (切れ): Cutting

Kire, or “cutting,” is a concept that underscores the importance of abruptness and discontinuity, often seen in various Japanese art forms. It can imply both a literal and metaphorical cutting, creating a dynamic tension between separation and continuity.

Example:

In haiku poetry, the kireji (切れ字) is a cutting word that provides a pause or break, separating yet linking the parts of the poem. This technique adds depth and resonance to the imagery and emotions expressed.

Further Reading 

• Ohashi, Ryōsuke, 1986, 「切れ」の構造：日本美と現代世界 (“Kire” no Kōzō: Nihonbi to Gendai Sekai), Tōkyō: Chūō Kōronsha.
• Ohashi, Ryōsuke, 1998, “Kire and Iki,” Graham Parkes (trans.), in Michael Kelly (ed.), The Encyclopedia of Aesthetics, New York: Oxford University Press, 2: 553–55.